A False Conclusion Invalidly Argued From False Premises

Martin (1992: 447):

This pattern of marked Themes in [4:2] is the dynamic equivalent of the synoptic metaphorical hyper-Themes discussed above. But in spoken mode the marked Themes punctuate rather than predict, annotating the text in episodes as it unfolds rather than scaffolding it as a macro-constituent structure that is in some sense preconceived. Seen in this light hyper-Themes can be interpreted as a further category of textual metaphor: a hyper-Theme is an [sic] metaphorical marked Theme.

Blogger Comment:

The invalidity of this argument can be made more obvious by making the text less opaque.  This can be done by glossing three of the terms used, as follows:

• (metaphorical) hyper-Theme = Topic Sentence (involving nominalisation)
• punctuate = interrupt
• annotate = add notes to a text, giving explanation or comment

Martin's argument now becomes:

This pattern of marked Themes in [4:2] is the dynamic equivalent of the synoptic Topic Sentences involving nominalisation discussed above. But in spoken mode the marked Themes interrupt rather than predict, providing comments on the text in episodes as it unfolds rather than scaffolding it as a macro-constituent structure that is in some sense preconceived. Seen in this light Topic Sentences can be interpreted as a further category of textual metaphor: a Topic Sentence is a metaphorical marked Theme.

The argument, then, is as follows.

Because

• marked topical Themes interrupting and providing comments on a spoken text (in episodes as it unfolds) 
• are the (dynamic) equivalent of 
• (synoptic) Topic sentences involving nominalisations scaffolding a written text (as a macro-constituent structure),

it logically follows that

• a Topic sentence involving nominalisation 
• is a metaphorical 
• marked Theme.

Leaving aside the false claims of the premises — including the claim that marked topical Themes provide comments on ("annotate") spoken texts — the validity of the argument rests on the assumption that the written counterpart of a spoken language feature constitutes textual grammatical metaphor.

This, of course, is not consistent with the notion of grammatical metaphor.

Grammatical metaphor is the incongruent grammatical realisation of semantic selections.  It is, in the first instance, an incongruent relation between the two levels of content: semantics (meaning) and lexicogrammar (wording).

Considering now the conclusion of the argument, to say that 'a hyper-Theme is a metaphorical marked Theme' is to say that:

• a Topic Sentence is the metaphorical realisation of what would be congruently realised as a marked topical Theme of a clause.

That is to say, an unspecified semantic choice (textual metafunction) is realised 

• congruently in the grammar as a marked topical Theme, and 
• incongruently in the grammar as a Topic Sentence, which is itself a type of graphological unit construed as part of a discourse semantic interaction pattern.

Conclusion:

Martin's argument proceeds from false premises, is invalidated by a false assumption, and ends with a false (and internally inconsistent) conclusion.

Assigning A Text To The Wrong "Genre"

Martin (1992: 446-7):

Being a procedural text, most clauses in [4:2] take people as their point of departure… . Unmarked topical Theme selection is not deployed to scaffold [4:2]'s staging or development (although it does reflect its genre).  Instead marked Themes, both phrasal and clausal, are used to stage the dog showing procedure.

Blogger Comment:

[1] The clauses in (genuine) procedural texts take procedures — (typically material) processes — as their point of departure, and feature imperative mood (Halliday & Matthiessen 1999: 98; Halliday & Matthiessen 2014: 479).  The clauses in text [4.2] take people as their point of departure, and feature indicative mood. This reflects the fact that this text is actually a recount of a procedure.  A recount of a procedure is a recount, not a procedure.

These two text types differ in terms of the situation type they realise.  The context of the recount text [4.2] is 'reporting', whereas the context of a procedural text is 'enabling' (Halliday & Matthiessen 2014: 219).

Halliday & Matthiessen (1999: 356):

The notion of procedure can be taken as a summary gloss of the domain; it is a macro-operation, consisting of a number of atomic micro-operations. It is dominated by procedures (algorithms, figures of doing) that lead to some specific goal: the dominant cause is purposive. An agent or agents try to produce, assemble, repair, etc.. 

From the interpersonal point of view, the notion of procedure can also be taken as a gloss on the interaction between the writer and the reader, it is a macro-proposal, consisting of a number of instructions or directions to the reader.

[2]  A dependent clause in regressive clause nexus is not a marked topical Theme of a clause.  See previous posts.

Misrepresenting Halliday On 'Theme'

Martin (1992: 445):

Theme has been analysed in dependent clauses with Subjects and β clauses have been interpreted as marked Themes where they are realised before their α, ignoring Themes in this α as above; Predicators in imperative and non-finite clauses are not treated as Themes, following Halliday (1985).

Blogger Comments:

[1] A dependent clause in a 'regressive sequence' (β^α) clause nexus is not a marked topical Theme of a clause.  It has thematic status within the clause nexus — not within a clause.  See Halliday & Matthiessen (2004: 392-3).

[2] In such cases, to ignore the Theme of either clause in the nexus, α or β, is to misrepresent the data.  Halliday & Matthiessen (2004: 394):

… the point to bear in mind is that there will be two thematic domains — that of the clause nexus, and that of the clause.

[3] In imperative clauses, 'it is the Predicator that is the unmarked Theme' (Halliday 1985: 49; Halliday 1994: 47; Halliday & Matthiessen 2004: 76; Halliday & Matthiessen 2014: 103).

Confusing Writing Pedagogy With Linguistic Theory

Martin (1992: 444):

The interaction patterns considered to this point have focussed on written text; the compositional scaffolding discussed depends for its development on a degree of consciousness not associated with spontaneous spoken monologue… — although professional public speakers do make use of scaffolding of a not unrelated kind.  Spontaneous spoken text however unfolds dynamically; it is not configured as a thing, with an elaborated part/whole structure.

Blogger Comments:

[1] This is misleading.  Text [6:35] was falsely presented as a text in written mode, despite the fact that it was actually a written transcript of an interview (spoken mode).  See the evidence at Falsifying Data: Misrepresenting An Interview Transcript As A Writing Exercise.

[2] As the term 'scaffolding' makes clear, this model of method of development — using macro-Theme (Introductory Paragraph) and hyper-Theme (Topic Sentence) — is actually a model of writing pedagogy.

[3] The "degree of consciousness" not associated with spoken monologue — or indeed spoken dialogue — is the possibility, afforded by written mode, of planning and editing a text, with the further option of using a model of writing pedagogy.

[4] Professional public speakers who write their speeches beforehand can also make use of the scaffolding offered by writing pedagogy.

[5] All texts unfold dynamically — since unfolding is a process, it would be hard to unfold any other way.  In SFL theory, this semogenic (meaning-making) process is modelled as logogenesis: the unfolding of the text at the instance pole of the cline of instantiation.

[6] To claim that a written text is 'configured as a thing' is to confuse the text as material object (e.g. ink on paper, etc.) with the text as semiotic object (an instance of a linguistic content).

[7] On the contrary, even spontaneous spoken text is highly structured.  As Halliday (1985: 79) explains:

The spoken language is, in fact, no less structured and highly organised than the written. It could not be otherwise, since both are manifestations of the same system.

Locating Graphological Units 'Above' A Grammatical Unit

Martin (1992: 443-4):

Clearly, in longer texts, this pattern of macro-Themes predicting hyper-Themes can be extended, with hyper-Themes themselves functioning as macro-Themes in their own right… .  Schematically, the thematic relationships being introduced here are outlined in Fig. 6.10, with the proviso that a text may be organised thematically around more than the three levels shown.  As noted above, the lowest level hyper-Themes in a text are referred to traditionally as Topic Sentences and the highest level "macro"-Themes as Introductions.

 

Fig. 6.10. Solidarity across levels of Theme

Blogger Comments:

[1] The field of Martin's discourse has again shifted from building a theory of language to prescribing the use of his model for the writing of coherent texts (pedagogy). Removing Martin's re-brandings, this sentence becomes:

Clearly, in longer texts, this pattern of Introductory Paragraphs predicting Topic Sentences can be extended, with Topic Sentences themselves functioning as Introductory Paragraphs in their own right.

[2] In SFL theory, these "predictions" correspond to non-structural cohesive relations — lexical and grammatical (reference) — between the wording realised in Introductory Paragraphs, the wording realised in Topic Sentences, and the wording of clause Themes.

[3] To be clear, removing Martin's re-brandings, this schema becomes:

[4] To be clear, in this model, the levels of "Theme" are the Introductory Paragraph, the Topic Sentence and the Theme of a clause.  The top two levels, the paragraph and the sentence, are rank units of the expression plane: the stratum of graphology, whereas the lowest level, the clause, is a rank unit of the content plane: the stratum of lexicogrammar.

The re-branding of Introductory Paragraph and Topic Sentence as macro-Theme and hyper-Theme helps to conceal this theoretical inconsistency.

Questions "Predicting" Answers

Martin (1992: 438):

The obvious candidate for macro-Theme in a writing exercise of this kind is the question: What would you like to do at the end of your rehabilitation? And like to do does predict the hyper-Themes of the reply:

My first choice is to go back to work at the hospital.
I would also like to go to a sheltered workshop.

Blogger Comments:

[1] A macro-Theme (of a text) is Martin's rebranding of 'introductory paragraph'; see previous post.  Here a question from an interviewer — which the interviewee spends the rest of the text answering — is interpreted as functioning the same an introductory paragraph.

[2] A hyper-Theme (of a paragraph) is Martin's rebranding of 'topic sentence'; see previous post. Here two of the interviewee's responses to the interviewer's question are each interpreted as functioning the same as a topic sentence.

[3] Here an interviewer's demand for information is interpreted as "predicting" the requested information given by an interviewee.  That is, a question is said to "predict" the answer it requests.  However, the question only solicits a reply, it does not predict the actual information given in the reply — the lexical cohesion of like–choice–like notwithstanding.

Falsifying Data: Misrepresenting An Interview Transcript As A Writing Exercise

Martin (1992: 437-8):

As an example, consider the following written text, from a traumatic brain injured patient (from Prigatano et al. undated).  Topical Themes are underlined [in bold], marked topical Themes are underlined in all clauses…

[6: 35]	(written mode)
	a	What would you like to do at the end of your rehabilitation program?
	b	My first choice is to go back to work at the hospital.
	c	This would be hard for me to do
	d	because they have hired someone to take my place.
	e	I liked the work.
	f	I was there for over 5 years.
	g	I also would like to go to a sheltered workshop.
	h	This would be good,
	i	but it has to have transportation to the place and home.
	j	The transportation would have to be a bus
	k	because I do not have a driver’s licence.
	l	I  was to have it renewed last year,
	m	but that was not done.
	n	To get a driver’s licence,
	o	I will need to take the written and the driver’s exam.
	p	The workshop will help me control my temper,
	q	which is bad for me.
	r	I get mad easily
	s	and this is because of my brain injury.
	t	All I can recall is that I was knocked out for 3 weeks.
	u	I did my recovery at Mercy ICU.
	v	I had my accident on my way to the hospital for a personnel director’s meeting.
	w	The workshop might have been in Austin, Texas.
	x	This means I will be away from home,
	y	which I would miss very much.
	z	I miss not being at home.
	aa	I would like to work in the yard
	bb	and work on the cars,
	cc	especially washing and wax(ing) them.
	dd	This I have not done for years.

The obvious candidate for macro-Theme in a writing exercise of this kind is the question: What would you like to do at the end of your rehabilitation?

Blogger Comments:

[1] There are several points of evidence that demonstrate that this is not a writing exercise, nor even a text in written mode.

Firstly, it lacks the lexical density of written mode, and leans more towards the grammatical intricacy of spoken mode.

Secondly, it begins with an interviewer question addressing the patient 'you', and the rest of the text is the reply of the patient 'I'.  The context of situation is clearly an interview with a patient in rehabilitation, not an exercise in a writing class.

Thirdly, it features a repair strategy that is common to written transcripts of spoken language: wax(ing).

The source of the text is:

Prigatano, G.P., J.R. Roueche & D.J. Fordyce, undated. "Nonaphasic Language Disturbances after Closed Head Injury". Presbyterian Hospital and Neurosurgery Section, University of Oklahoma. mimeo.

[2] This is not a marked topical Theme of a clause.  It is a dependent clause in a 'regressive sequence' (b^a) clause nexus.  It has thematic status within the clause nexus — not within a clause.  See Halliday & Matthiessen (2004: 392-3).

Intuiting Others' Assessments of Coherence

Martin (1992: 437):

In writing, the use of macro-Themes to predict hyper-Themes, which in turn predict a sequence of clause Themes is an important aspect of texture; and texts which do not make use of predicted patterns of interaction in this way may be read as less than coherent.

Blogger Comments:

[1] The field of Martin's discourse has shifted here from building a theory of spoken and written language to prescribing the use of his model for the writing of coherent texts (pedagogy). Removing Martin's re-brandings, this sentence becomes:

In writing, the use of introductory paragraphs to predict topic sentences, which in turn predict a sequence of clause Themes is an important aspect of texture.

[2] A text that is restricted to this pattern cannot develop, because it must always revert back to the same point of departure. On the model of Daneš (1974) — the source of the notion of hypertheme — there are three main types of thematic progression:

1. a preceding Rheme becomes the next Theme;
2. a repetition of the same Theme, the first appearance termed a 'hypertheme';
3. a progression of derived Themes

For a text to develop, New information has to be introduced — in the Rheme in the unmarked case — and later taken as the point of the departure (Theme) in a subsequent clause, thereby providing the context for the introduction of further New information.

[3] Consider the likelihood that a text that doesn't develop would be 'read' as coherent with respect to its context of situation.

Note that here Martin provides his own intuition of what unidentified readers might regard as 'less than coherent'. See the related post Misrepresenting Hasan's Work On Coherence As Formalist.

Confusing Graphology And Semantics

Martin (1992: 437):

For English Text then, a hyper-Theme is an introductory sentence or group of sentences which is established to predict a particular pattern of interaction among strings, chains and Theme selection in following sentences — It is the child of wisdom and chance is the hyper-Theme of [6:34].  On the basis of this definition of hyper-Theme, the term macro-Theme can be defined as [a] sentence or group of sentences (possibly a paragraph) which predicts a set of hyper-Themes; this is the introductory paragraph of school rhetoric.  The proportionalities being set up here [are] as follows:

macro-Theme : text ::  hyper-Theme : paragraph ::  Theme : clause

Blogger Comments:

[1] Sentences and paragraphs are graphological units — units of the expression plane in written not spoken mode.  Here they are misconstrued as semantic units.

[2] In the dynamic unfolding of a text, logogenesis, a hyper-Theme does not predict future Themes. Any "prediction" is a retrospective analysis that is only made after the fact by taking a synoptic view of a written text.

[3] This "introductory (Topic) sentence" is preceded by a three-clause complex that introduces the topic of the discourse: the English Constitution.

[4] Just as the meaning of the Greek prefix 'hyper-' is above, over or beyond, the meaning of the Greek prefix 'macro-' is long or large.  That is, this (poor) choice of terminology results in the Theme of the largest unit, the (semantic) text, being a long- or large-Theme, and the Theme of the next largest unit, the (graphological) paragraph, being an above-, over- or beyond-Theme.

[5] That is, 'macro-Theme' is merely Martin's re-branding of 'introductory paragraph'.

[6] The proportionalities being set up here are as follows:

textual function of semantic unit : 

textual function of graphological unit :

textual function of grammatical unit

Problems With The Argument For Hyper-Theme

Martin (1992: 437):

Daneš (1974: 118-9) suggests a number of ways in which strings, chains, Themes and Rhemes may interact in text. In some texts Themes typically relate to immediately preceding Rhemes, in others to immediately preceding Themes. Of special interest is the pattern suggested by Daneš whereby successive Themes are related to a single preceding Theme (or hyper-Theme as he terms it). This is the pattern that [6:34] would have displayed had wisdom and chance been made thematic in clause [6:34d] (e.g. Wisdom and chance gave birth to the English Constitution). As [6:34] stands however, Themes are predicted by clause [6:34d]'s New, not its Theme.

The important point here however is that [6:34d] stands in a predictive relationship to the interaction between lexical strings and Theme selection.  It thus functions as the Topic Sentence in school rhetoric — as the Theme of the paragraph in other words, rather than as the Theme of a clause.  Daneš's term hyper-Theme will be extended here to refer to paragraph Themes of this kind.

Blogger Comments:

[1] To be clear, Daneš (1974) identifies three main types of thematic progression:

1. a preceding Rheme becomes the next Theme;
2. a repetition of the same Theme, the first appearance termed a 'hypertheme';
3. a progression of derived Themes

[2] The relation here is one of identity. In SFL theory, this is lexical cohesion (elaborating: identity) working with Theme. That is, it is the non-structural and structural resources of the textual metafunction creating texture.

[3] The Greek prefix 'hyper-' means over; beyond; above.  The 'hypertheme' of Daneš (1974) is 'over' or 'above' its later repetitions.

[4] If the type 2 ('hypertheme') thematic progression had been used, it would have had a significant deleterious effect on the texture:

The English Constitution — that indescribable entity — is a living thing, growing with the growth of men, and assuming ever-varying forms in accordance with the subtle and complex laws of human character. Wisdom and chance gave birth to the English Constitution.

[5] On the model of Daneš (1974), the thematic progression from [6:34d] to [6:34e] is type 1 (above), at least to the extent that the preceding Rheme is the child of wisdom and chance can be said to be taken up in the following Theme the wise men of 1688.  But, strictly speaking, the Rheme does not become the following Theme; the relation between the two is the lexical cohesion between wisdom and wise.

[6] Any "prediction" in what will be taken up as subsequent Theme can only be made with hindsight — by taking a synoptic perspective on the text.  This is inconsistent with — contrary to — Martin's claim (1992: 401) that interaction patterns — here: mode of development — will be interpreted as a process rather than as a synoptic system:

Grammatical metaphor, like interaction patterns, will be interpreted as a process here, rather than as a synoptic system…

[7] To be clear:

In prescriptive grammar, the topic sentence is the sentence in an expository paragraph which summarises the main idea of that paragraph. It is usually the first sentence in a paragraph. 

Also known as a focus sentence, it encapsulates or organises an entire paragraph. Although topic sentences may appear anywhere in a paragraph, in academic essays they often appear at the beginning. The topic sentence acts as a kind of summary, and offers the reader an insightful view of the writer’s main ideas for the following paragraph. More than just being a mere summary, however, a topic sentence often provides a claim or an insight directly or indirectly related to the thesis. It adds cohesion to a paper and helps organise ideas both within the paragraph and the whole body of work at large. As the topic sentence encapsulates the idea of the paragraph, serving as a sub-thesis, it remains general enough to cover the support given in the body paragraph while being more direct than the thesis of the paper.

[8] The paragraph is a unit of graphology.  It is a unit of the expression plane form, but restricted to written mode.  The paragraph is not a unit of spoken language; no-one speaks in paragraphs.  Here it is misapplied to semantics, the stratum of meaning on the content plane.

[9] This extension of the term 'hypertheme' is not justified by Martin's exposition.  Here is a summary of the 'argument':

First, two of the three types of thematic progression in Daneš (1974) are introduced.

Second, an example in text [6:34] that actually demonstrates type 1 (Rheme > Theme) is used to make the case for type 2 (Theme repetition): hyper-Theme > Theme.

Third, the clause featuring the New/Rheme ([6:34d]) is claimed to have the same function as a Topic Sentence.

Fourth, the (clause featuring the New/Rheme that is misconstrued as functioning as a) Topic Sentence is deemed to be the Theme of a graphological unit, the sentence, and termed a hyper-Theme.


In short, this convoluted argument merely disguises the fact that Martin has just rebranded Topic Sentence as hyper-Theme.

Misunderstanding Internal Conjunction (inter alia)

Martin (1992: 436):

This interaction of lexical strings with Theme is itself associated with [6:34]'s internal conjunctive structure.  The text justifies the claim that the English constitution is the child of wisdom and chance with two examples ([6:34e-f] and [6:34g-q]).  The Themes in [6:34e+f] and in [6:34g+i] scaffold this rhetorical structure.  This three-way pattern of interaction (conjunctive relations, lexical strings and Theme) is outlined in Fig. 6.8.

Figure 6.8. Interaction of internal conjunction, lexical strings and Theme in [6:34]

Blogger Comments:

[1] Contrary to the analysis depicted in Figure 6.8, two of the examples presented as Theme, [d] and [k], do not constitute the Theme of their respective clauses.  In the case of [d], this is acknowledged in the text of the following page, but its inclusion in the diagram is a deliberate fudge in order to ease in the notion of hyper-Theme (see the following posts).

[2] There are no internal conjunctive relations in this text — implicit or otherwise.  As previously explained, in the case of temporal conjunction in textual cohesion, the distinction between internal and external relations is the distinction between the temporal unfolding of the discourse (interpersonal time) and the temporal sequence of the processes referred to (experiential time), respectively (Halliday & Matthiessen 2004: 545).  Here is the complete text for verification:

The English Constitution — that indescribable entity — is a living thing, growing with the growth of men, and assuming ever-varying forms in accordance with the subtle and complex laws of human character.  It is the child of wisdom and chance.  The wise men of 1688 moulded it into the shape we know, but the chance that George I could not speak English gave it one of its essential peculiarities — the system of a cabinet independent of the crown and subordinate to the Prime Minister.  The wisdom of Lord Grey saved it from petrification, and set it upon the path of democracy.  Then chance intervened once more.  A female sovereign happened to marry an able and pertinacious man, and it seemed likely that an element which had been quiescent within it for years — the element of irresponsible administrative power — was about to become its predominant characteristic and change completely the direction of its growth.  But what chance gave chance took away.  The Consort perished in his prime, and the English Constitution, … , continued its mysterious life dropping the dead limb with hardly a tremor as if he had never been.

[3] This confuses metafunctions.  'Justifying a claim' describes the text in terms of its interpersonal enactments (and ideational construals), rather than in terms of its textual highlighting (e.g Theme) and textual transitions (e.g. cohesive conjunction).

[4] What the author does textually is to take the New information in [d] wisdom and chance and highlight each of them in turn by giving thematic status, thereby making them the (Given) point of departure for the introduction of further New information.  In SFL theory, it is this, combined with the non-structural textual resources — those of lexical and grammatical cohesion — that create the texture of this text.

Misanalysing A Clause Complex And Its Clauses

Martin (1992: 434-6):

Topical Themes are in bold face in this text, and marked topical Themes are underlined … .

[6:34]	topical themes (underlined) [sic]
	j.	A female soverieign happened to marry an able and pertinaceous man,
	k.	and it seemed likely that an element which had been quiescent within it for years — the element of irresponsible administrative power — was about to become its predominate characteristic
	l.	and change completely the direction of its growth.

… Note that grammatical metaphor has been drawn on to weave these particular strings through Theme and to formulate the appropriate "hyper-Theme" predicting this interaction pattern.  … modalisation is dressed up as a quality in [6:34k] — likely.

Blogger Comments:

[1] There are only two, not three, ranking clauses in this clause complex; clause [l] is embedded:

A female sovereign happened to marry an able and pertinacious man,	and it seemed likely [[that an element which had been quiescent within it for years — the element of irresponsible administrative power — was about to become its predominate characteristic || and change completely the direction of its growth.]]
1	+ 2

[2] The (unmarked topical) Theme of the second clause is it.  The word likely is within the Rheme — not marked topical Theme.  This is an instance of postposed Subject, not predicated Theme, and as an interpersonal metaphor of modality, it seemed likely is an interpersonal Theme, not a topical Theme.

and	it	seemed	likely	[[that an element which had been quiescent within it for years — the element of irresponsible administrative power — was about to become its predominate characteristic || and change completely the direction of its growth.]]
Theme		Rheme

[3] In terms of ideational meaning, this is a quality of projection; see Halliday & Matthiessen (1999: 211).  The realisation of a quality as an Attribute, as it is here, is not metaphorical.

and	it	seemed	likely	[[that an element which had been quiescent within it for years — the element of irresponsible administrative power — was about to become its predominate characteristic || and change completely the direction of its growth.]]
	Carr-	Process: relational	Attribute	-ier

The grammatical metaphor with regard to likely is interpersonal — a metaphor of modality: the explicit objective realisation of probability as it seemed likely.

It is this interpersonal metaphor that engenders a postposed Subject — see Halliday & Matthiessen 2004: 97-8) — which is realised by an embedded clause complex that is lexically dense with ideational metaphor:

and	it	seemed		likely	[[that an element which had been quiescent within it for years — the element of irresponsible administrative power — was about to become its predominate characteristic || and change completely the direction of its growth.]]
	Subject	Finite	Predicator	Complement	postposed Subject

In terms of the textual metafunction, all the work here is being done by the marked distribution of information units, not by thematic structure.  The combined effect of the interpersonal and ideational metaphor is to package the quanta of information into four or five information units, highlighting four or five elements of New information, co-extensive with the postposed Subject.  It is New information that is most textually relevant here, not Theme.

that an element which had been quiescent within it	for years
Given	New

the element of	irresponsible administrative power
Given	New

was about to become	its predominate characteristic
Given	New

and change	completely
Given	New

the direction of its growth

New